Artículo original en inglés
Traducción al español (Traducción automática, sin revisión detallada)
Introducción
El 24 de septiembre de 2021, la revista médica The Lancet destacó un artículo en su portada con una sola oración en texto grande; “Históricamente, la anatomía y la fisiología de los cuerpos con vaginas se han descuidado”.
Esta declaración, en la que la palabra «mujeres» fue reemplazada por la frase «cuerpos con vaginas», es parte de una tendencia a eliminar términos sexuados como «mujeres» y «madres» de las discusiones sobre la reproducción femenina. La buena e importante intención detrás de estos cambios es la sensibilidad y el reconocimiento de las necesidades de las personas que son biológicamente mujeres y, sin embargo, no se consideran mujeres debido a su identidad de género (1). Sin embargo, estos cambios a menudo no se deliberan con respecto a su impacto en la precisión o el potencial de otras consecuencias no deseadas. En este documento presentamos algunos antecedentes de este problema, describimos varios impactos observados, consideramos una serie de consecuencias potencialmente perjudiciales y sugerimos un camino a seguir.
El sexo (una categoría reproductiva), el género (un rol social) y la identidad de género (un sentido interno de uno mismo) no son sinónimos (2, 3). El sexo es importante para la reproducción, ya que solo hay dos gametos y vías puberales hacia la edad adulta y la producción de gametos, y solo un tipo de cuerpo productor de gametos que queda embarazada (2). Como principio general de la comunicación, está bien establecido que el sexo de las personas debe hacerse visible cuando es relevante y no debe invocarse cuando no lo es (4–9). Esto facilita evitar los estereotipos sexuales al tiempo que garantiza que no se pasen por alto las necesidades y los problemas basados en el sexo (4–9). En la comunicación relacionada con la reproducción femenina ha predominado, por tanto, el lenguaje sexuado que incluye las palabras “mujeres” y “madres”. Sin embargo, este uso ha sido cuestionado en respuesta al aumento del número y la visibilidad de las personas que tienen una identidad de género, lo que significa que no desean que se las mencione como tal (10, 11). Como se describe a continuación, debemos dirigirnos a las personas como lo deseen (12), pero, en términos más generales, existen riesgos en el lenguaje de castración cuando se describe la reproducción femenina.
La discusión aquí se presenta con una audiencia explícitamente global en mente. Si bien las personas que no se ajustan a las expectativas sociales de su sexo son omnipresentes en todo el mundo, la respuesta a tales individuos está influenciada por la cultura en la que residen. Esto incluye en el nivel de aceptación o marginación que experimentan, las formas en que se acomodan y las formas en que se conceptualiza su inconformidad (13). Debe reconocerse que la sanción por no conformidad con los roles de género puede ser alta (14). Donde el concepto de identidad de género es destacado, la castración del lenguaje de la reproducción femenina ha surgido como una adaptación para remediar la marginación (10, 11). Sin embargo, debe tenerse en cuenta que las mujeres embarazadas y que dan a luz y las nuevas madres y sus bebés tienen vulnerabilidades únicas y también requieren protección.
Cada día mueren unas 810 mujeres durante el embarazo, el parto y después, y la mayoría de las muertes se producen en países de ingresos bajos y medios (15). Más mujeres en países de ingresos bajos, medianos y altos sufren complicaciones en el embarazo y el parto que amenazan sus vidas con consecuencias a corto y largo plazo (16). El maltrato y la violencia obstétrica ocurren en todas partes y contribuyen significativamente al trauma del parto (17, 18). La psicosis puerperal afecta a 1 o 2 de cada 1000 madres, a menudo en los primeros días después del parto (19) y es una de las principales causas de muerte materna por suicidio, así como por infanticidio (20). Las muertes maternas por causas no médicas, como el suicidio y las lesiones, están atrayendo cada vez más la atención de los principales organismos de salud, como la Organización Mundial de la Salud, con llamados para extender la notificación hasta un año después del nacimiento (21). A nivel mundial, 3,9 millones de bebés mueren cada año (22). Más de 800 000 de estas muertes son atribuibles a la interrupción prematura de la lactancia materna exclusiva o de cualquier tipo (23). Incluso en los contextos más ricos, la interrupción temprana de la lactancia materna es responsable de una gran proporción de hospitalizaciones infantiles (24). Así, el artículo 25 de la Declaración Universal de los Derechos Humanos dice que los estados de “maternidad e infancia tienen derecho a cuidados y asistencia especiales” (25) y la Convención de las Naciones Unidas sobre los Derechos del Niño establece que el interés superior del niño son primordiales (26).
El concepto de identidad de género
La identidad de género se puede describir como el sentido internalizado de un individuo de ser masculino, femenino o de otra manera, o como una comprensión interna de uno mismo como hombre, mujer, ambos o ninguno, y es independiente del sexo (27, 28). El concepto de identidad de género se originó en la década de 1960 en los Estados Unidos de América (EE. UU.) (29), se perfeccionó en la década de 1990 a través de una filosofía posmoderna llamada Teoría Queer (30) y continúa evolucionando. En el centro de la Teoría Queer se encuentran las proposiciones gemelas de que tanto el sexo como el género se construyen socialmente (31, 32) y que el género es el más importante de los dos (3, 33)1. Las ideas basadas en la teoría queer se han extendido desde los EE. UU. para volverse influyentes en muchos otros países occidentales y más allá (30). El número de niños, adolescentes y adultos que reportan identidades de género en conflicto con su sexo (descritos como “transgénero”) ha crecido dramáticamente en los últimos años (35). Junto a este aumento, ha cobrado protagonismo la idea de que no todas las personas que dan a luz son mujeres.
Fundamentalmente, palabras como «mujer» y «madre» pueden tener significados tanto sexuados como de género. Los significados sexuados establecidos desde hace mucho tiempo son que “mujer” significa un adulto del sexo femenino2, y “madre” significa una progenitora (36). Sin embargo, cuando se aplican nuevos significados de género informados por la Teoría Queer, “mujer” significa un adulto con una identidad de género de “mujer” y “madre” significa un padre con una identidad de género de “mujer” (37). Los mismos principios se aplican a las interpretaciones sexuadas y de género de «hombre» y «padre». En este documento y los Materiales complementarios asociados, a menos que se indique lo contrario, utilizamos los significados sexuados de estas palabras.
En respuesta a las preocupaciones derivadas de la Teoría Queer, muchas organizaciones e individuos están cambiando el lenguaje que utilizan para describir a las mujeres a fin de priorizar la comprensión de género y evitar la terminología sexuada3 (38–41). Estos cambios de lenguaje están destinados a evitar la angustia, se describen como inclusivos (42) y son alentados por iniciativas de diversidad, equidad e inclusión. El lenguaje castrado es más común en el oeste de habla inglesa, pero se aplica cada vez más a nivel internacional (43–45). Sin embargo, parece haber habido poca consideración de la ética de estos cambios, incluidos los principios de evitar daños y maximizar la salud (46), o cómo pueden afectar los derechos de las mujeres y los niños. El ejercicio de la ética médica requiere equilibrar “autonomía” y “justicia”. En este contexto, apoyar la autonomía es un objetivo legítimo y ético, pero también deben ser considerados los principios de justicia distributiva, de respeto a la igualdad y dignidad de cada individuo de la población (47). Aunque los cambios de lenguaje propuestos se relacionan con las mujeres, también afectan a los niños, ya que la madre y el bebé forman una díada, cuyas funciones fisiológicas dependen una de la otra y están íntimamente interconectadas en un estado de desarrollo único, vital y transitorio (48–50). Por lo tanto, nos corresponde estar seguros de cómo las necesidades de las mujeres y los requisitos previos del desarrollo de los niños pueden verse afectados por estos cambios en el lenguaje y cómo pueden afectar la promoción de la salud maternoinfantil y los derechos humanos.
¿Cómo se está cambiando el lenguaje?
La evitación de los términos sexuados más comúnmente da como resultado que las palabras «mujer» y «mujeres» se reemplacen con «persona», «personas» o «familias» y las palabras «madre» y «madres» se reemplacen con «padre», «padres». ”, “familia” o “familias” (51). A veces, también se utilizan partes del cuerpo (p. ej., «propietarios de la vagina») o procesos (p. ej., «nacimientos»). Se pueden utilizar términos como «no hombres» o «no hombres» para referirse a las mujeres. “Maternidad” (52), “materno” (53), “partera” (54) y “lactancia materna” (52) también se han convertido en términos polémicos.
En contraste con el uno o el otro de la sustitución de palabras sexuadas, a veces se propone utilizar ambos/y palabras. Entonces, en lugar de referirse a “mujeres” o “madres”, uno podría decir “mujeres y personas que dan a luz”, “mujeres y otras personas que dan a luz” o “madres y padres”, una estrategia comúnmente descrita como “lenguaje aditivo” (54). ). El texto también se puede construir de modo que se eviten «mujeres», «madres» o una alternativa a estos términos. En cambio, se hace referencia a “embarazos”, “nacimientos” o “alimentación infantil” / “amamantamiento”, eludiendo por completo la necesidad de indicar quién experimenta estos estados. Se puede evitar el término “niñas” en conjunto con las menores no desagregadas de las mujeres adultas embarazadas o madres. A veces se puede usar una mezcla de términos sexuados y algunas o todas estas estrategias dentro del mismo documento, descritas como “uso de una variedad de términos” (55). En particular, el lenguaje de castración en relación con los hombres ocurre con menos frecuencia (56). Algunos de los términos castrados de reemplazo se muestran en la Tabla 1 y se pueden encontrar ejemplos detallados de cambios de idioma y su interpretación en el Material complementario 1.
¿Cuáles son las consecuencias de estos cambios de idioma?
La esterilización del lenguaje de la reproducción femenina se ha hecho con miras a ser sensible a las necesidades individuales y como algo beneficioso, amable e inclusivo. Sin embargo, esta amabilidad ha tenido consecuencias no deseadas que tienen serias implicaciones para las mujeres y los niños. Estos incluyen: disminución de la inclusión general; deshumanizante; incluyendo a las personas que deberían ser excluidas; ser impreciso, inexacto o engañoso; y desencarnando y socavando la lactancia materna. Además, evitar el término “madre” en su sentido sexuado corre el riesgo de reducir el reconocimiento y el derecho a la protección de la díada madre-hijo.
Disminuye la inclusión general
Evitar la terminología sexuada en relación con la reproducción femenina va en contra del principio del lenguaje sencillo de la comunicación sanitaria y corre el riesgo de reducir la inclusión de los grupos vulnerables al hacer que las comunicaciones sean más difíciles de entender (57). Aquellos que son jóvenes, con bajo nivel de alfabetización o educación, con discapacidad intelectual, de antecedentes religiosos conservadores, o a quienes se les comunica en su idioma no nativo, corren un mayor riesgo de malinterpretar el lenguaje castrado (58–62). Sin embargo, incluso las mujeres con altos niveles de educación pueden no estar familiarizadas con los procesos reproductivos femeninos y los términos de la anatomía y fisiología femenina y, por lo tanto, es posible que no comprendan algunos términos relacionados con la castración (63–65). Es posible que no sepan, por ejemplo, que “una persona con cuello uterino” es una mujer y se refiere a ellas (59). La traducción de un texto castrado a otros idiomas también puede ser más difícil, especialmente cuando no existe un equivalente directo del inglés sex-neutral “parent” (por ejemplo, el español que solo tiene “padre”) (66).
deshumaniza
Numerosos términos alternativos para «mujeres» y «madres» implican referencias a partes del cuerpo o procesos fisiológicos. Referirse a los individuos de esta manera reducida y mecanicista se percibe comúnmente como «otro» y deshumanizante (67). Por ejemplo, el término “mujer embarazada” identifica al sujeto como una persona que experimenta un estado fisiológico, mientras que “portadora gestante” o “pariente” margina su humanidad. Los esfuerzos para eliminar el lenguaje deshumanizante en la atención médica son de larga data (68), incluso en relación con las mujeres durante el embarazo, el parto y la nueva maternidad (67, 69–71). Es imperativo utilizar un lenguaje que respete a las mujeres en edad fértil dada la prevalencia de la violencia obstétrica (18, 72, 73). Considerar a las mujeres en relación con los hombres como “no hombres” o “no hombres”, trata el cuerpo masculino como estándar (8) y se remonta a la conceptualización sexista aristotélica de las mujeres como hombres fallidos (74).
Incluye personas que deberían ser excluidas
Términos como “padres” y “familias” en reemplazo de “madres” pueden incluir de manera inapropiada a los padres y otros miembros de la familia, disminuyendo e invisibilizando así a las mujeres (75). El uso de «personas» y «familias» como reemplazos de «mujeres» puede incluir de forma igualmente inapropiada a hombres y otros miembros de la familia. Las mujeres tienen experiencias, necesidades y derechos únicos en relación con el embarazo, el parto y la lactancia que no comparten con otros (18, 76–79). No se puede suponer que los intereses de una mujer se alinearán con los de su esposo o pareja. Esto se ilustra con mayor claridad en el problema de la violencia doméstica, que a menudo comienza o aumenta durante el embarazo y cuya prevalencia mundial oscila entre el 5% y el 63% (80). Las mujeres, incluso cuando están embarazadas, no pierden sus derechos humanos individuales y deben ser apoyadas para tomar decisiones autónomas durante el embarazo, el parto y la lactancia. Esto incluye, por ejemplo, a su compañero de elección durante el parto (81), que puede ser o no el padre de su hijo. Sin embargo, el texto que se refiere a “familias biológicas” puede sugerir que otros miembros de la familia tienen derechos con respecto a la toma de decisiones de la mujer durante el parto. De manera similar, el texto que se refiere a apoyar a los “padres” o las “familias” para tomar decisiones sobre la alimentación infantil (82) sugiere que otras personas además de la madre deberían tomar decisiones sobre la lactancia (75). Esto pasa por alto que las parejas y los miembros de la familia pueden socavar directa o indirectamente la lactancia (75, 83). También oscurece la posición de la mujer como titular de derechos y de los miembros de la familia como garantes de deberes en relación con la lactancia materna (76). La terminología que incluye a otros puede, por lo tanto, impedir la provisión de atención adecuada y erosionar los derechos de las madres y sus bebés.
La intención del “lenguaje aditivo” es encapsular a las mujeres embarazadas y dando a luz o a las madres como un grupo, pero hacerlo de una manera que evite ofender a quienes no desean ser nombradas como mujeres o madres. Sin embargo, la adición de términos como “personas que dan a luz” o “padres que amamantan” cambia los significados de “mujeres” y “madres” de términos sexuados que incluyen a todas las mujeres y todas las madres, a términos de género que pueden ser confusos o inapropiadamente inclusivos. . Por ejemplo, ¿qué significa realmente la frase “mujeres y personas que dan a luz”? Esta construcción podría interpretarse de forma literal en el sentido de que “mujeres”
El imperialismo cultural en la salud pública mundial
Como se explicó anteriormente, el ímpetu del lenguaje desexuado en relación con la reproducción femenina fluye de una filosofía desarrollada en los EE. UU. y dentro de la cual predominan los entendimientos y las prioridades estadounidenses (147). En el contexto de la salud pública global, un estímulo o requisito cada vez mayor para el lenguaje sexual por parte de organizaciones internacionales o financiadores con sede en los EE. UU./Occidente puede experimentarse no solo como confuso sino también como imperialismo cultural y lingüístico (148, 149). Esta opinión fue expresada recientemente por más de 250 consejeras de lactancia de 45 países a la Junta de la organización de apoyo a la lactancia La Leche League, con sede en los EE. Las organizaciones y los individuos tienen la responsabilidad de evitar la imposición de ideas occidentales que puedan causar daño a aquellos con quienes trabajan4. Además, los riesgos asociados con el lenguaje de castración deben ser cuidadosamente considerados con una evaluación de impacto realizada, incluso cuando el concepto de identidad de género tenga relevancia cultural.
Caminos a seguir para aquellas que están embarazadas, dando a luz y amamantando pero que no se identifican como mujeres o madres
En algunas circunstancias, la aplicación de significados de palabras de género en lugar de sexo es apropiado y respaldamos plenamente la importancia de ser inclusivos y respetuosos (12). Para aquellas que están embarazadas, dando a luz y amamantando pero que no se identifican como mujeres, se debe usar la terminología preferida de la persona para referirse a sí mismas y a las partes de su cuerpo siempre que sea posible (1, 151). Esto puede significar evitar el lenguaje sexuado por completo y usar términos de género en esta base de uno a uno. Sin embargo, el uso del idioma preferido no debe presumirse para nadie (151). Las campañas de salud pública dirigidas deben abordar las necesidades de este grupo, no solo para garantizar que el lenguaje utilizado sea adecuado (152), sino porque pueden tener necesidades sociales adicionales o necesidades médicas asociadas con tratamientos como el uso de testosterona o la cirugía para extirpar tejido mamario ( 153, 154). De manera similar, los materiales de apoyo de salud específicos son valiosos y ya han sido producidos por algunas organizaciones [p. (155-157)]. El desarrollo de materiales castrados separados (al igual que podría ocurrir con personas de diferentes orígenes lingüísticos) puede ser una estrategia útil [p. (158, 159)].
La inclusión de todas las que están embarazadas, dando a luz o amamantando, independientemente de su identidad de género, se puede hacer explícita a través de declaraciones o definiciones de inclusión, algunos ejemplos de los cuales se proporcionan en el Material complementario 2. Estas adaptaciones pueden ser adecuadas en circunstancias en las que el lenguaje de castración es no es apropiado debido al impacto negativo en la claridad o cualquiera de los otros perjuicios mencionados anteriormente. Por ejemplo, la Guía de atención postnatal NICE del Reino Unido establece que “La guía utiliza los términos “mujer” o “madre” en todo momento. Debe entenderse que incluyen a las personas que no se identifican como mujeres pero que están embarazadas o han dado a luz” (160). Una variedad de estrategias pueden ser apropiadas en diferentes circunstancias. Reconocemos que es un desafío continuo aplicar el lenguaje de una manera que sea clara, concisa y que preserve la dignidad de todas las personas descritas.
Hay preocupaciones relacionadas con los registros médicos de las personas transgénero. En algunos países, las personas pueden cambiar los marcadores de sexo en sus registros médicos sobre la base de su identidad de género (109, 161). El caso de un marcador de sexo inexacto que puede haber contribuido a una identificación tardía del embarazo con un mortinato resultante, ilustra el impacto adverso potencial de esta práctica (162). También se han informado problemas asociados con la detección del cáncer de cuello uterino cuando se han alterado los marcadores sexuales (163). La Alianza de disforia de género de Canadá ha enfatizado la importancia de que el sexo se registre con precisión en los registros de salud y la necesidad de un lenguaje claro en torno al sexo (164). Anotar tanto el sexo como la identidad de género (cuando corresponda) en los registros médicos puede brindar una solución (2, 165). También se debe enfatizar que existe una escasez de conocimiento sobre cómo apoyar las necesidades de salud de las personas transgénero, particularmente en lo que respecta a los efectos a largo plazo en la salud de los tratamientos hormonales. Se necesita con urgencia más investigación y en esta investigación, los datos sobre el sexo siguen siendo vitales. Aquellas que no se identifican como mujeres o madres y, sin embargo, quedan embarazadas y dan a luz, se benefician más de una cultura y un servicio de salud que reconozca y comprenda profundamente los aspectos moleculares, celulares, conductuales y orgánicos subyacentes necesarios para reproducirse. Incluidos en tales entendimientos están la adaptación y la posible carga alostática que la acompaña con mala adaptación cuando no se cumple la expectativa biológica (166-168). Tal mala adaptación puede evitarse y manejarse si se caracteriza adecuadamente desde la biología básica y el uso de una terminología clara (169).
Recomendaciones y Conclusión
los
Footnotes
1. ^Another idea associated with Queer Theory is that sex is a spectrum or that there are more than two sexes. Individuals with intersex variations may be brought in as proof of this. However, the conceptualisation of people with intersex variations as being of a “third” sex is misconstrued and has been opposed by intersex organizations (34).
2. ^In this sexed meaning, everyone who gives birth is indeed a woman.
3. ^Sometimes the desexing of language is referred to as using “gender neutral” or “non-gendered” language. Such characterisation is misleading. Gender neutral or non-gendered language more properly means not ascribing a gender role when the sex of the person undertaking the role is irrelevant. For example, as they can be male or female is it appropriate to avoid “policemen” and instead refer to “police officers”.
4. ^This includes understanding that an interpretation of gender non-conformity in non-Western cultures through a Queer Theory lens risks misunderstanding and neocolonialism, see (13).
References
1. Botelle R, Connolly D, Walker S, Bewley S. Contemporary and future transmasculine pregnancy and postnatal care in the UK. Practicing Midwife. (2021) 24:8–13.
Google Scholar
2. Bewley S, McCartney M, Meads C, Rogers A. Sex, gender, and medical data. BMJ. (2021) 372:n735. doi: 10.1136/bmj.n735
PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar
3. Sullivan A. Sex and the census: why surveys should not conflate sex and gender identity. Int J Soc Res Methodol. (2020) 23:517–24. doi: 10.1080/13645579.2020.1768346
CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar
4. Sczesny S, Formanowicz M, Moser F. Can gender-fair language reduce gender stereotyping and discrimination? Front Psychol. (2016) 7. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2016.00025
PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar
5. Laguna-Goya N, de Andres-Trelles F. Sex as a variable in medicines assessment reports for licensing in the European Union. Can gender bias be excluded? Eur J Clin Pharmacol. (2014) 70:519–25. doi: 10.1007/s00228-014-1646-5
PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar
6. Howard LM, Ehrlich AM, Gamlen F, Oram S. Gender-neutral mental health research is sex and gender biased. Lancet Psychiatry. (2017) 4:9–11. doi: 10.1016/S2215-0366(16)30209-7
PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar
7. Lee SK. Sex as an important biological variable in biomedical research. BMB Rep. (2018) 51:167–73. doi: 10.5483/BMBRep.2018.51.4.034
PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar
8. Merkatz RB. Inclusion of women in clinical trials: a historical overview of scientific ethical and legal issues. JOGNN. (1998) 27:78–84. doi: 10.1111/j.1552-6909.1998.tb02594.x
PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar
9. Menegatti M, Rubini M. Gender Bias and Sexism in Language. Oxford: Oxford University Press. (2017). doi: 10.1093/acrefore/9780190228613.013.470
CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar
10. MacDonald TK. Lactation care for transgender and non-binary patients: empowering clients and avoiding aversives. J Hum Lact. (2019) 35:223–6. doi: 10.1177/0890334419830989
PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar
11. Hoffkling A, Obedin-Maliver J, Sevelius J. From erasure to opportunity: a qualitative study of the experiences of transgender men around pregnancy and recommendations for providers. BMC Pregnancy Childbirth. (2017) 17:332. doi: 10.1186/s12884-017-1491-5
PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar
12. National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. Patient experience in adult NHS services: improving the experience of care for people using adult NHS services (2021). Available online at: https://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/cg138/chapter/1-guidance. (accessed November 16, 2021)
Google Scholar
13. Billard TJ, Nesfield S. (Re)making “transgender” identities in global media and popular culture. In: Ryan JM, editor Trans Lives in a Global(izing) World: Rights, Identities, and Politics. New York: Routledge. (2019). doi: 10.4324/9780429201783-5
CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar
14. Ahmady K. Migration and gender for Iranian LGBT. J Int Relat Peace Stud Develop. (2018) 4:1–18.
Google Scholar
15. World Health Organization UNICEF UNFPA World Bank. Trends in Maternal Mortality 2000-2017. New York: United Nations (2019).
Google Scholar
16. Geller SE, Koch AR, Garland CE, MacDonald EJ, Storey F, Lawton B, et al. global view of severe maternal morbidity: moving beyond maternal mortality. Reprod Health. (2018) 15:98. doi: 10.1186/s12978-018-0527-2
PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar
17. United Nations. Report of the Special Rapporteur on Violence Against Women, its Causes and Consequences on a Human Rights-Based Approach to Mistreatment and Violence Against Women in Reproductive Health Services with a Focus on Childbirth and Obstetric Violence. Geneva: United Nations (2019).
18. Dahlen H, Kumar-Hazard B, Schmied V. Birthing Outside the System: The Canary in the Coal Mine. New York: Routlage. (2020). doi: 10.4324/9780429489853
CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar
19. VanderKruik R, Barreix M, Chou D, Allen T, Say L, Cohen LS, et al. The global prevalence of postpartum psychosis: a systematic review. BMC Psychiatry. (2017) 17:272. doi: 10.1186/s12888-017-1427-7
PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar
20. Brockington I. Suicide and filicide in postpartum psychosis. Archives of Women’s Mental Health. (2017) 20:63–9. doi: 10.1007/s00737-016-0675-8
PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar
21. Thornton C, Schmied V, Dennis C-L, Barnett B, Dahlen HG. Maternal Deaths in NSW (2000–2006) from nonmedical causes (suicide and trauma) in the first year following birth. Biomed Res Int. (2013) 2013:623743. doi: 10.1155/2013/623743
PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar
22. UN Inter-agency Group for Child Mortality Estimation. Levels and Trends in Child Mortality: Report 2020. New York: UNICEF (2020).
23. Victora CG, Bahl R, Barros AJD, França GVA, Horton S, Krasevec J, et al. Breastfeeding in the 21st century: epidemiology, mechanisms, and lifelong effect. Lancet. (2016) 387:475–90. doi: 10.1016/S0140-6736(15)01024-7
PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar
24. Payne S, Quigley MA. Breastfeeding and infant hospitalisation: analysis of the UK 2010 infant feeding survey. Matern Child Nutr. (2016) 13:e12263. doi: 10.1111/mcn.12263
PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar
25. United Nations. Universal Declaration of Human Rights (1948). Available online at: http://www.un.org/en/documents/udhr/index.shtml. (accessed October 20, 2020)
Google Scholar
26. United Nations Office of the High Commissioner. Convention on the Rights of the Child New York: United Nations (1990). Available online at: https://www.ohchr.org/en/professionalinterest/pages/crc.aspx. (accessed November 16, 2021)
27. Heidari S, Babor TF, De Castro P, Tort S, Curno M. Sex and gender equity in research: rationale for the SAGER guidelines and recommended use. Res Integr Peer Rev. (2016) 1:2. doi: 10.1186/s41073-016-0007-6
PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar
28. Galupo MP, Pulice-Farrow L, Ramirez JL. “Like a constantly flowing river”: gender identity flexibility among nonbinary transgender individuals. In: Sinnott JD, editor. Identity Flexibility During Adulthood: Perspectives in Adult Development. Cham: Springer International Publishing (2017). p. 163–77. doi: 10.1007/978-3-319-55658-1_10
CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar
29. Money J. The concept of gender identity disorder in childhood and adolescence after 39 years. J Sex Marital Ther. (1994) 20:163–77. doi: 10.1080/00926239408403428
PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar
30. Mikdashi M, Jasbir P. Queer Theory and permanent war. GLQ. (2016) 22:215–22. doi: 10.1215/10642684-3428747
CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar
31. Butler J. Gender Trouble. London: Routlage. (1990).
Google Scholar
32. Suissa J, Sullivan A. The gender wars, academic freedom and education. J Philos Educ. (2021) 55:55–82. doi: 10.1111/1467-9752.12549
CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar
33. Alpert AB, Ruddick R, Manzano C. Rethinking sex-assigned-at-birth questions. BMJ. (2021) 373:n1261. doi: 10.1136/bmj.n1261
PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar
34. Carpenter M. The “normalization” of intersex bodies and “othering” of intersex identities in Australia. J Bioeth Inq. (2018) 15:487–95. doi: 10.1007/s11673-018-9855-8
PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar
35. Pang KC, de Graaf NM, Chew D, Hoq M, Keith DR, Carmichael P, et al. Association of media coverage of transgender and gender diverse issues with rates of referral of transgender children and adolescents to specialist gender clinics in the UK and Australia. JAMA Netw Open. (2020) 3:e2011161. doi: 10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2020.11161
PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar
36. Oxford English Dictionary. “woman, n.”. Oxford University Press (2021).
37. Margaria A. Trans men giving birth and reflections on fatherhood: what to expect? Int J Law Policy Family. (2020) 34:225–46. doi: 10.1093/lawfam/ebaa007
CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar
38. Ion R, Patrick L, Hayter M, Jackson D. Sex, gender and nursing. J Adv Nurs. (2021) 77:e10–e2. doi: 10.1111/jan.14843
PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar
39. Bamberger ET, Farrow A. Gendered and inclusive language in the preparation of manuscripts: policy statement for the Journal of Human Lactation. J Hum Lact. (2021) 37:227–9. doi: 10.1177/0890334421995103
PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar
40. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. COVID-19: Pregnant and Recently Pregnant People (2021). Available online at: https://www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019-ncov/need-extra-precautions/pregnant-people.html. (accessed September 12, 2021)
Google Scholar
41. Spatz DL. Using gender-neutral terms in lactation. MCN Am J Matern Child Nurs. (2020) 45:61. doi: 10.1097/NMC.0000000000000594
PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar
42. Farrow A. Lactation Professionals and Gender Inclusive Language: Lactation Matters the Official Blog of the International Lactation Consultant Association (2017). Available online at: https://lactationmatters.org/2017/03/27/lactation-professionals-and-gender-inclusive-language/. (accessed September 10, 2021)
43. Global Breastfeeding Collective. Call for Videos: Impacts of Formula Marketng on Breastfeeding (2021). Available online at: https://www.globalbreastfeedingcollective.org/call-videos-impacts-formula-marketing-breastfeeding. (accessed September 11, 2021)
44. Yourkavitch J, Nyaku A. Elevating the Voices of Breastfeeding People (2021). Available online at: https://r4d.org/blog/elevating-the-voices-of-breastfeeding-people/. (accessed September 12, 2021)
45. World Alliance for Breastfeeding Action. Empowering Parents Campaign (2021). Available online at: https://waba.org.my/epc/. (accessed September 16, 2021)
46. Schroder-Back P, Duncan P, Sherlaw W, Brall C, Czabanowska K. Teaching seven principles for public health ethics: towards a curriculum for a short course on ethics in public health programmes. BMC Med Ethics. (2014) 15:73. doi: 10.1186/1472-6939-15-73
PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar
47. Beauchamp TL, Childress JF. Principles of Biomedical Ethics 7th Edition. Oxford: Oxford University Press. (2013).
Google Scholar
48. Kirsten GF, Bergman NJ, Hann FM. Kangaroo mother care in the nursery. Pediatr Clin North Am. (2001) 48:443–52. doi: 10.1016/S0031-3955(08)70036-1
PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar
49. Gribble KD. A model for caregiving of adopted children after institutionalization. J Child Adolesc Psychiatr Nurs. (2007) 20:14–26. doi: 10.1111/j.1744-6171.2007.00076.x
PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar
50. Gribble K, Marinelli KA, Tomori C, Gross MS. Implications of the COVID-19 pandemic response for breastfeeding, maternal caregiving capacity and infant mental health. J Hum Lact. (2020) 36:591–603. doi: 10.1177/0890334420949514
PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar
51. Rouix C, Weedon S, London-Nadeau K, Pare A, Juster R, Roos LE, et al. Gender-inclusive language in pregnancy-related research: why and how to improve current practices. SocArXiv. (2021). Available online at: https://osf.io/preprints/socarxiv/csnqw/
Google Scholar
52. Brighton and Sussex University Hospitals NHS Trust. Gender Inclusive Language in Perinatal Services: Mission Statement and Rationale. Brighton: NHS (2020).
53. Brandt JS, Patel AJ, Marshall I, Bachmann GA. Transgender men, pregnancy, and the “new” advanced paternal age: a review of the literature. Maturitas. (2019) 128:17–21. doi: 10.1016/j.maturitas.2019.07.004
PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar
54. Pendleton J. (En)Gendering the word “midwife”: semantics, etymology and orientations. J Gend Stud. (2021) 1–13. doi: 10.1080/09589236.2021.1952406
CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar
55. La Leche League International. Cultural Sensitivity in Publications (2020). Available online at: https://www.llli.org/psr-cultural-sensitivity-in-publications/. (accessed September 12, 2020)
Google Scholar
56. Dahlen S. Do we need the word “woman” in healthcare? Postgrad Med J. (2021) 97:483. doi: 10.1136/postgradmedj-2021-140193
PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar
57. Mottl-Santiago J, Fox CS, Pecci CC, Iverson R. Multidisciplinary collaborative development of a plain-language prenatal education journal. J Midwifery Womens Health. (2013) 58:271–7. doi: 10.1111/jmwh.12059
PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar
58. Krull LM, Pearce LD, Jennings EA. How religion, social class, and race intersect in the shaping of young women’s understandings of sex, reproduction, and contraception. Religions. (2021) 12. doi: 10.3390/rel12010005
PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar
59. Hunter JL. Cervical cancer educational pamphlets: do they miss the mark for Mexican immigrant women’s needs? Cancer Control. (2005) 12:42–50. doi: 10.1177/1073274805012004S07
PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar
60. Srivastava S, Chandra M. Study on the knowledge of school girls regarding menstrual and reproductive health and their perceptions about family life education program. Int J Reprod Contracept Obstet Gynecol. (2017) 6:688–93. doi: 10.18203/2320-1770.ijrcog20170406
CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar
61. Metusela C, Ussher J, Perz J, Hawkey A, Morrow M, Narchal R, et al. “In my culture, we don’t know anything about that”: sexual and reproductive health of migrant and refugee women. Int J Behav Med. (2017) 24:836–45. doi: 10.1007/s12529-017-9662-3
PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar
62. Wilson LD. Developing low-literacy health education materials for women. MCN Am J Matern Child Nurs. (2011) 36:246–51. doi: 10.1097/NMC.0b013e3182183bbd
PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar
63. Howarth C, Hayes J, Simonis M, Temple-Smith M. “Everything’s neatly tucked away”: young women’s views on desirable vulval anatomy. Cult Health Sex. (2016) 18:1363–78. doi: 10.1080/13691058.2016.1184315
PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar
64. Harmanli O, Ilarslan I, Kirupananthan S, Knee A, Harmanli A. Women’s perceptions about female reproductive system: a survey from an academic obstetrics and gynecology practice. Arch Gynecol Obstet. (2014) 289:1219–23. doi: 10.1007/s00404-013-3116-1
PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar
65. Volck W, Ventress ZA, Herbenick D, Hillard PJ, Huppert JS. Gynecologic knowledge is low in college men and women. J Pediatr Adolesc Gynecol. (2013) 26:161–6. doi: 10.1016/j.jpag.2012.12.004
PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar
66. Bartick M, Stehel EK, Calhoun SL, Feldman-Winter L, Zimmerman D, Noble L, et al. Academy of Breastfeeding Medicine position statement and guideline: infant feeding and lactation-related language and gender. Breastfeed Med. (2021) 16:587–90. doi: 10.1089/bfm.2021.29188.abm
PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar
67. Hunter LP. Women give birth and pizzas are delivered: language and western childbirth paradigms. J Midwifery Womens Health. (2006) 51:119–24. doi: 10.1016/j.jmwh.2005.11.009
PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar
68. Donnelly WJ. The language of medical case histories. Ann Intern Med. (1997) 127:1045–8. doi: 10.7326/0003-4819-127-11-199712010-00035
PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar
69. Bastian H. Confined, managed and delivered: the language of obstetrics. Br J Obstet Gynaecol. (1992) 99:92–3. doi: 10.1111/j.1471-0528.1992.tb14460.x
PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar
70. Etowa JB. Black women’s perceptions of supportive care during childbirth. Int J Childbirth Educ. (2012) 27:27–32.
PubMed Abstract | Google Scholar
71. Likis FE, King TL, Murphy PA, Swett B. Intentional inconsistency as gender-neutral language evolves. J Midwifery Womens Health. (2018) 63:155–6. doi: 10.1111/jmwh.12746
PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar
72. Orpin J, Puthussery S, Davidson R, Burden B. Women’s experiences of disrespect and abuse in maternity care facilities in Benue State, Nigeria. BMC Pregnancy Childbirth. (2018) 18:213. doi: 10.1186/s12884-018-1847-5
PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar
73. Martínez-Galiano JM, Martinez-Vazquez S, Rodríguez-Almagro J, Hernández-Martinez A. The magnitude of the problem of obstetric violence and its associated factors: a cross-sectional study. Women Birth. (2021) 34:e526–e36. doi: 10.1016/j.wombi.2020.10.002
PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar
74. Horowitz MC. Aristotle and woman. J Hist Biol. (1976) 9:183–213. doi: 10.1007/BF00209881
PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar
75. Munzer MA. Families do not breastfeed, mothers do…and we need to say so. World Nutr. (2021) 12:30–3.
Google Scholar
76. Gribble KD, McGrath M, MacLaine A, Lhotska L. Supporting breastfeeding in emergencies: protecting women’s reproductive rights and maternal and infant health. Disasters. (2011) 35:720–38. doi: 10.1111/j.1467-7717.2011.01239.x
PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar
77. Committee on the Elimination of Discimination Against Women. General Recommentation No. 24: Article 12 of the Convention (Women and Health) (1999). Available online at: https://tbinternet.ohchr.org/Treaties/CEDAW/Shared%20Documents/1_Global/INT_CEDAW_GEC_4738_E.pdf. (accessed November 16, 2021)
78. Esterik PV. Right to food; right to feed; right to be fed. The intersection of women’s rights and the right to food. Agric Human Values. (1999) 16:225–32.
Google Scholar
79. White Ribbon Alliance. Respectful Maternity Care: The Universal Rights of Childbearing Women (2012). Available online at: https://www.who.int/woman_child_accountability/ierg/reports/2012_01S_Respectful_Maternity_Care_Charter_The_Universal_Rights_of_Childbearing_Women.pdf. (accessed November 16, 2021)
Google Scholar
80. James L, Brody D, Hamilton Z. Risk factors for domestic violence during pregnancy: a meta-analytic review. Violence Vict. (2013) 28:359–80. doi: 10.1891/0886-6708.VV-D-12-00034
PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar
81. World Health Organization. Companion of Choice During Labour and Childbirth for Improved Quality of Care. Geneva: World Health Organization (2020).
82. Association of Women’s Health OaNN. The use of human milk during parent–newborn separation: evidence-based clinical practice guideline. J Obstet Gynecol Neonatal Nurs. (2021) 50:E9–E42. doi: 10.1016/j.jogn.2021.06.003
PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar
83. Sørbø MF, Lukasse M, Brantsæter A-L, Grimstad H. Past and recent abuse is associated with early cessation of breast feeding: results from a large prospective cohort in Norway. BMJ Open. (2015) 5:e009240. doi: 10.1136/bmjopen-2015-009240
PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar
84. Welford H. “…And Pregnant People”? Nope. Nope. And All the Nopity Nope (2021). Available online at: https://with-woman.org/2021/07/11/and-pregnant-people-nope-nope-and-all-the-nopity-nope/. (accesed November 16, 2021)
Google Scholar
85. Department of Health. COVID-19 Vaccination Decision Guide for People who are Pregnant, Breastfeeding or Planning Pregnancy Version 5.1 Canberra: Australian Government (2021). Available online at: https://web.archive.org/web/20210823014732/https://www.health.gov.au/sites/default/files/documents/2021/08/covid-19-vaccination-shared-decision-making-guide-for-women-who-are-pregnant-breastfeeding-or-planning-pregnancy-covid-19-vaccination-shared-decision-making-guide-for-women-who-are-pregnant-breastfeeding-or-planning-pregna_0.pdf. (accessed October 10, 2021)
86. Shimabukuro TT, Kim SY, Myers TR, Moro PL, Oduyebo T, Panagiotakopoulos L, et al. Preliminary findings of mRNA COVID-19 vaccine safety in pregnant persons. N Engl J Med. (2021) 384:2273–82. doi: 10.1056/NEJMoa2104983
PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar
87. Munshi L, Wright JK, Zipursky J, Jordensen S, Bogler T, Miller KJ, et al. The incidence, severity, and management of COVID-19 in critically ill pregnant individuals. Sci Briefs Ontario COVID-19 Adv Table. (2021) 2:1–23. doi: 10.47326/ocsat.2021.02.43.1.0
CrossRef Full Text
88. Pineles BL, Goodman KE, Pineles L, O’Hara LM, Nadimpalli G, Magder LS, et al. In-hospital mortality in a cohort of hospitalized pregnant and nonpregnant patients with COVID-19. Ann Intern Med. (2021) 174:1186–8. doi: 10.7326/M21-0974
PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar
89. Fabi RE, Ludmir J. Pregnancy, pandemics, and public health policy: the disparate impact of COVID-19 on pregnant immigrants. Womens Health Issues. (2021) 31:195–7. doi: 10.1016/j.whi.2020.12.001
PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar
90. Maxwell C. Excerpts from the world medical literature: obstetrics. J Obstet Gynaecol Can. (2021) 43:429–31. doi: 10.1016/j.jogc.2021.01.009
PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar
91. Stebbings R, Maguire S, Armour G, Jones C, Goodman J, Maguire AK, et al. Developmental and reproductive safety of AZD1222 (ChAdOx1 nCoV-19) in mice. Reprod Toxicol. (2021) 104:134–42. doi: 10.1016/j.reprotox.2021.07.010
PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar
92. South Australia Health. Frequently Asked Questions: COVID-19 Vaccination and Pregnant, Planning a Family, and Breastfeeding Adelaide: Government of South Australia (2021). Available online at: https://emergencydepartments.sa.gov.au/wps/wcm/connect/b60afec9-f418-4b73-99ef-0e07e582664b/20210910+-+COVID-19+Vaccination+for+Pregnancy+and+Breastfeeding.pdf?MOD=AJPERES&CACHEID=ROOTWORKSPACE-b60afec9-f418-4b73-99ef-0e07e582664b-nLe3hqS. (accessed October 20, 2021)
93. Viveiros A, Rasmuson J, Vu J, Mulvagh SL, Yip CYY, Norris CM, et al. Sex differences in COVID-19: candidate pathways, genetics of ACE2, and sex hormones. Am J Physiol Heart Circ Physiol. (2021) 320:H296–304. doi: 10.1152/ajpheart.00755.2020
PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar
94. Rymaszewski A. Interviewing Breast Cancer Patients to Understand the Patients Relationship with Food Before and After Cancer Diagnosis (2019). Available online at: https://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/record/NCT04117438. (acessed November 16, 2021)
95. National Health Service. Trying to Get Pregnant (2020). Available online at: https://web.archive.org/web/20201229204603/https://www.nhs.uk/pregnancy/trying-for-a-baby/trying-to-get-pregnant/. (acessed November 16, 2021)
96. Bracken C. How the Conversation Around Endometriosis is Changing (2021). Available online at: https://www.abc.net.au/triplej/programs/the-hook-up/how-the-conversation-around-endometriosis-is-changing/13294122. (acessed November 16, 2021)
97. Eidelman AI. More thoughts on lactation-related language and gender. Breastfeed Med. (2021) 16:847. doi: 10.1089/bfm.2021.29193.aie
PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar
98. Roush K, Kurth A, Hutchinson MK, Van Devanter N. Obstetric fistula: what about gender power? Health Care Women Int. (2012) 33:787–98. doi: 10.1080/07399332.2011.645964
PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar
99. Ganeshpanchan Z, Masson I. Harmful social and cultural practices that exist within South Asian communities in the UK and their impact on women. In: Masson I, Baldwin L, Booth N, editors. Critical Reflections on Women, Family, Crime and Justice. Bristol: Bristol University Press (2021). p. 35–56. doi: 10.46692/9781447358701.004
CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar
100. Ragusa AT. Rural Australian women’s legal help seeking for intimate partner violence: women intimate partner violence victim survivors” perceptions of criminal justice support services. J Interpers Violence. (2012) 28:685–717. doi: 10.1177/0886260512455864
PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar
101. Willie TC, Powell A, Callands T, Sipsma H, Peasant C, Magriples U, et al. Investigating intimate partner violence victimization and reproductive coercion victimization among young pregnant and parenting couples: a longitudinal study. Psychol Violence. (2019) 9:278–87. doi: 10.1037/vio0000118
PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar
102. Brinda EM, Rajkumar AP, Enemark U. Association between gender inequality index and child mortality rates: a cross-national study of 138 countries. BMC Public Health. (2015) 15:97. doi: 10.1186/s12889-015-1449-3
PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar
103. Hodson N, Bewley S. How language hides violence against girls. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. (2019) 81:e162–e3. doi: 10.1097/QAI.0000000000001985
PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar
104. Ganchimeg T, Ota E, Morisaki N, Laopaiboon M, Lumbiganon P, Zhang J, et al. Pregnancy and childbirth outcomes among adolescent mothers: a World Health Organization multicountry study. BJOG. (2014) 121:40–8. doi: 10.1111/1471-0528.12630
PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar
105. Messick CA. Treatment efficacy for human papillomavirus-related anal squamous cell dysplasia in an under-represented population: human immunodeficiency-negative, non-men having sex with men, and non-transplant population. Colorectal Dis. (2020) 22:29–35. doi: 10.1111/codi.14786
PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar
106. Heidt A. Sex of Fetus Affects Immune Response to COVID-19 During Pregnancy (2021). Available online at: https://wwwthe-scientistcom/news-opinion/sex-of-fetus-affects-immune-response-to-covid-19-during-pregnancy (69329). (accessed October 26, 2021)
107. Allsbrook JF, Ahmed O, Ellmann N. Toward Equitable Treatments for Women’s Health During Coronavirus and Beyond (2020). Available online at: https://www.americanprogress.org/issues/women/reports/2020/07/15/487429/toward-equitable-treatments-womens-health-coronavirus-beyond/. (accessed November 16, 2021)
108. Fair Play for Women. Inaccurate Press Report of Sex: Fair Play for Women’s Written Submission to the Public Consultation on the Editors” Code of Practice (2020). Available online at: https://www.editorscode.org.uk/downloads/code-review-2020/Fair-Play-For-Women-Submission-to-Editors-Code-Consultation-270320.pdf. (accessed November 16, 2021)
109. Dahlen S. De-sexing the medical record? An examination of sex versus gender identity in the general medical council’s trans healthcare ethical advice. New Bioeth. (2020) 26:38–52. doi: 10.1080/20502877.2020.1720429
PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar
110. Bai DL, Fong DY, Lok KY, Wong JY, Tarrant M. Practices, predictors and consequences of expressed breast-milk feeding in healthy full-term infants. Public Health Nutr. (2017) 20:492–503. doi: 10.1017/S136898001600241X
PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar
111. Johns HM, Forster DA, Amir LH, McLachlan HL. Prevalence and outcomes of breast milk expressing in women with healthy term infants: a systematic review. BMC Pregnancy Childbirth. (2013) 13:212. doi: 10.1186/1471-2393-13-212
PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar
112. O’Sullivan EJ, Geraghty SR, Cassano PA. Rasmussen KM. Comparing alternative breast milk feeding questions to US breastfeeding surveillance questions. Breastfeed Med. (2019) 14:347–53. doi: 10.1089/bfm.2018.0256
PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar
113. Fan HSL, Fong DYT, Lok KYW, Tarrant M. Association between expressed breast milk feeding and breastfeeding duration in Hong Kong mothers. Women Birth. (2021). doi: 10.1016/j.wombi.2021.06.007
PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar
114. Pang WW, Bernard JY, Thavamani G, Chan YH, Fok D, Soh S-E, et al. Direct vs. expressed breast milk feeding: relation to duration of breastfeeding. Nutrients. (2017) 9:547. doi: 10.3390/nu9060547
PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar
115. Li R, Fein SB, Grummer-Strawn LM. Do infants fed from bottles lack self-regulation of milk intake compared with directly breastfed infants? Pediatrics. (2010) 125:e1386. doi: 10.1542/peds.2009-2549
PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar
116. Li R, Magadia J, Fein SB, Grummer-Strawn LM. Risk of bottle-feeding for rapid weight gain during the first year of life. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med. (2012) 166:431–6. doi: 10.1001/archpediatrics.2011.1665
PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar
117. Auerbach KG, Guss E. Breastfeeding: a verbal bonding. J Trop Pediat. (1986) 32:2–3. doi: 10.1093/tropej/32.1.2
PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar
118. MacNeilage PF. Sound patterns and conceptual content of the first words. In: Lefebvre C, Comrie B, Cohen H, editors New Perspectives on the Origins of Language Amsterdam: John Benjamins Publishing Company. (2013). doi: 10.1075/slcs.144.13mac
CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar
119. Jensen JM, Stvan LS. Birthmother: A Pragmatic Analysis (2007). Available online at: https://www.academia.edu/52504373/The_Connotation_of_Birthmother_Semantic_Frames_and_Compound_Nouns_student_presentation_and_paper_. (accessed October 10, 2021)
120. Osmanovna GA. The concept of “mother” and the means of its implementation in the series of novels by Joanne Rowling “Harry Potter”. Problem Mod Sci Educ. (2017) 21:41–6.
121. Cempa K. Polysemy of mother- a linguistic overview of the concept. Beyond Phil. (2010) 7:9–34.
Google Scholar
122. Senate of Australia Community Affairs References Committee. Reflections on Former Forced Adoption Policies and Practices: Report of the Senate Community Affairs References Committee. Canberra: Commonwealth of Australia (2012).
Google Scholar
123. Andrews V. The Language of Adoption (2009). Available online at: https://www.originscanada.org/adoption-practices/adoption-language/language-of-adoption/. (accessed June 12, 2021)
124. Turski D. Why “Birthmother” Means “Breeder” (2002). Available online at: https://web.archive.org/web/20181108195352/http://www.exiledmothers.com/adoption_facts/Why_Birthmother_Means_Breeder.html. (accessed November 16, 2021)
125. Kane B. An exploration of the experience of birth mothers who relinquished a child for adoption between 1960 and 1990 and who subsequently initiated contact with the relinquished child. The clinical implications for practitioners: Middlesex University and Metanoia Institute (2018).
Google Scholar
126. Coulter M. Birth mother. In: O’Reilly A, editor Encyclopedia of Motherhood California: SAGE Publications. (2010).
Google Scholar
127. Broadhurst K, Mason C. Child removal as the gateway to further adversity: birth mother accounts of the immediate and enduring collateral consequences of child removal. Qual Soc Work. (2019) 19:15–37. doi: 10.1177/1473325019893412
CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar
128. Sharyn LRA. Reinforcing gender norms: commercial and altruistic surrogacy. Acta Sociol. (1990) 33:63–74. doi: 10.1177/000169939003300105
CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar
129. Rowland R. Living Laboratories. Sydney: Pan Macmillan. (1992).
Google Scholar
130. Gribble KD, Gallagher M. Rights of children in relation to breastfeeding in child protection cases. Br J Soc Work. (2014) 44:434–50. doi: 10.1093/bjsw/bcu004
PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar
131. Ludington-Hoe SM, Johnson MW, Morgan K, Lewis T, Gutman J, Wilson PD, et al. Neurophysiologic assessment of neonatal sleep organization: preliminary results of a randomized, controlled trial of skin contact with preterm infants. Pediatrics. (2006) 117:e909–23. doi: 10.1542/peds.2004-1422
PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar
132. Bergman NJ. Historical background to maternal-neonate separation and neonatal care. Birth Defects Res. (2019) 111:1081–6. doi: 10.1002/bdr2.1528
PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar
133. NICU musings. Twitter: Is it time to replace Kangaroo Mother Care with Kangaroo Parent Care? (2021). Available online at: https://archive.vn/oY6fM. (accessed November 16, 2021)
134. Royal Hospital for Women. Ventilated Infant for Kangaroo Parent Care (2016). Available online at: https://www.seslhd.health.nsw.gov.au/sites/default/files/migration/RHW/Newborn_Care/Guidelines/Nursing/nccventkang.pdf. (accessed September 14, 2021)
135. Muniraman H, Ali M, Cawley P, Hillyer J, Heathcote A, Ponnusamy V, et al. Parental perceptions of the impact of neonatal unit visitation policies during COVID-19 pandemic. BMJ Paediatr Open. (2020) 4:e000899. doi: 10.1136/bmjpo-2020-000899
PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar
136. Scala M, Marchman VA, Brignoni-Pérez E, Morales MC, Dubner SE, Travis KE. Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on developmental care practices for infants born preterm. Early Hum Dev. (2021) 163:105483. doi: 10.1016/j.earlhumdev.2021.105483
PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar
137. Laugesen A. Changing “man made language”: Sexist language and feminist linguistic activism in Australia. In: Arrow M, Woolacott A, editors. Everyday Revolutions: Remaking Gender, Sexuality and Culture in 1970s Australia. Canberra: ANU press (2019). doi: 10.22459/ER.2019.13
CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar
138. Perez CC. Invisible Women: Exposing Data Bias in a World Designed for Men. New York: Random House. (2019).
PubMed Abstract | Google Scholar
139. World Alliance for Breastfeeding Action. Parents at Work: Leave and Breastfeeding Breaks by Country (2019). Available online at: https://waba.org.my/paw-chart-2019/. (acessed November 16, 2021)
140. Wood DL, Emslie O. Dad Days: How More Gender-Equal Parental Leave Could Improve the Lives of Australian Families. Melbourne: Grattan Institute (2021).
141. The Parenthood. Making Australia the Best Place to be a Parent (2021). Available online at: https://www.theparenthood.org.au/report. (accessed October 10, 2021)
142. United Nations. Sustainable Development Goals: Goal 5. Available online at: https://www.un.org/sustainabledevelopment/gender-equality/. (accessed November 16, 2021)
143. Illamola SM, Bucci-Rechtweg C, Costantine MM, Tsilou E, Sherwin CM, Zajicek A. Inclusion of pregnant and breastfeeding women in research – efforts and initiatives. B J Clin Pharmacol. (2018) 84:215–22. doi: 10.1111/bcp.13438
PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar
144. UN Women. Turning Promises into Action: Gender Equality in the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development. New York: UN Women (2018).
145. Stats NZ. Sex and Gender Identity Statistical Standards: Findings from Public Consultation July-August 2020. Wellington: Stats NZ Tatauranga Aotearoa. (2020).
146. GC Academic Network. Your Stories (2021). Available online at: https://www.gcacademianetwork.org/. (accessed November 16, 2021)
147. Mizielinska J. Queering Moominland: the problems of translating queer theory into a non-american context. Suomen Queer-tutkimuksen Seuran. (2006) 1:87–104.
148. Phillipson R. Language policy and linguistic imperialism. In: Ricento T, editor. An Introduction to Language Policy: Theory and Method. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing (2010). p. 346–61.
149. Abdel-Malek A. Social Dialectics: Civilisations and Social Theory. Albany: State University of New York Press (1981). doi: 10.1007/978-1-349-03819-0
CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar
150. Lineham G. La Leche League has Fallen (2021). Available online at: https://grahamlinehan.substack.com/p/la-leche-league-has-fallen. (accessed November 21, 2021)
151. Hahn M, Sheran N, Weber S, Cohan D, Obedin-Maliver J. Providing patient-centered perinatal care for transgender men and gender-diverse individuals: a collaborative multidisciplinary team approach. Obstet Gynecol. (2019) 134:959–63. doi: 10.1097/AOG.0000000000003506
PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar
152. Combs R, Wendel M, Gonzales T. Considering transgender and gender nonconforming people in health communication campaigns. Palgrave Commun. (2018) 4:98. doi: 10.1057/s41599-018-0155-z
CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar
153. Mutter RW, Frost MH, Hoskin TL, Johnson JL, Hartmann LC, Boughey JC. Breast cancer after prophylactic mastectomy (bilateral or contralateral prophylactic mastectomy), a clinical entity: presentation, management, and outcomes. Breast Cancer Res Treat. (2015) 153:183–90. doi: 10.1007/s10549-015-3515-z
PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar
154. Grimstad FW, Fowler KG, New EP, Ferrando CA, Pollard RR, Chapman G, et al. Uterine pathology in transmasculine persons on testosterone: a retrospective multicenter case series. Am J Obstet Gynecol. (2019) 220:257.e1–e7. doi: 10.1016/j.ajog.2018.12.021
PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar
155. Australian Breastfeeding Association. Breastfeeding, Chest Feeding and Human Milk Feeding: Supporting LGBTQIA+ Families. Melbourne: Australian Breastfeeding Association (2021).
156. Family Equality. Trans Family Building (2021). Available online at: https://www.familyequality.org/family-building/trans-family-building/. (accessed November 16, 2021)
157. Trans Hub. Pregnancy (2021). Available online at: https://www.transhub.org.au/pregnancy. (accessed November 16, 2021)
158. Birth Guide Chicago. COVID-19: If I Test Positive or Have Symptoms, Will I be Separated from My Baby After Birth (2021). Available online at: https://birthguidechicago.com/should-covid-positive-mother-be-separated-from-her-baby-what-leading-health-organizations-say/. (accessed November 16, 2021)
159. Authority. HFaE. HFEA MT Form (Gender-Neutral Version) (2020). Available online at: https://www.hfea.gov.uk/media/3062/2020-01-31-mt-form-gender-neutral-version-3.pdf. (accessed November 18, 2021)
160. National Institute for Health and Care Excellence Royal Royal College of Obstetricians and Gynaecologists. Postnatal Care: NICE Guideline. London: NICE (2021).
161. Murray Blackburn Mackenzie. Recoding sex on medical records: a case study of NHS Scotland (2020). Available online at: https://murrayblackburnmackenzie.org/2020/01/12/recording-sex-on-medical-records-a-case-study-of-nhs-scotland/. (accessed November 16, 2021)
162. Stroumsa D, Roberts Elizabeth FS, Kinnear H, Harris LH. The power and limits of classification: 32-year-old man with abdominal pain. N Engl J Med. (2019) 380:1885–8. doi: 10.1056/NEJMp1811491
PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar
163. Anonymous. Trans man says confusion caused cervical screening delay (2021). Available online at: https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-england-humber-58515769. (accessed November 16, 2021)
164. Kimberly A, Terrell A, Gender Dysphoria Alliance. Re: Rethinking sex-assigned-at-birth questions (2021). Available online at: https://www.bmj.com/content/373/bmj.n1261/rr-20. (accessed November 16, 2021)
165. Patel K, Lyon ME, Luu HS. Providing inclusive care for transgender patients: capturing sex and gender in the electronic medical record. J Appl Lab Med. (2020) 6:210–8. doi: 10.1093/jalm/jfaa214
PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar
166. Juster R-P, Lupien S. A sex- and gender-based analysis of allostatic load and physical complaints. Gend Med. (2012) 9:511–23. doi: 10.1016/j.genm.2012.10.008
PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar
167. Yang Y, Kozloski M. Sex differences in age trajectories of physiological dysregulation: inflammation, metabolic syndrome, and allostatic load. J Gerontol A Biol Sci Med Sci. (2011) 66:493–500. doi: 10.1093/gerona/glr003
PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar
168. McEwen BS, Gianaros PJ. Stress- and allostasis-induced brain plasticity. Annu Rev Med. (2011) 62:431–45. doi: 10.1146/annurev-med-052209-100430
PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar
169. Ellis BJ, Del Giudice M. Developmental adaptation to stress: an evolutionary perspective. Annu Rev Dev Psychol. (2019) 70:111–39. doi: 10.1146/annurev-psych-122216-011732
PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar
170. Green E. The culture war over “pregnant people”. In: The Atlantic. (2021) (accessed September 17, 2021).Footnotes
1. ^Another idea associated with Queer Theory is that sex is a spectrum or that there are more than two sexes. Individuals with intersex variations may be brought in as proof of this. However, the conceptualisation of people with intersex variations as being of a “third” sex is misconstrued and has been opposed by intersex organizations (34).
2. ^In this sexed meaning, everyone who gives birth is indeed a woman.
3. ^Sometimes the desexing of language is referred to as using “gender neutral” or “non-gendered” language. Such characterisation is misleading. Gender neutral or non-gendered language more properly means not ascribing a gender role when the sex of the person undertaking the role is irrelevant. For example, as they can be male or female is it appropriate to avoid “policemen” and instead refer to “police officers”.
4. ^This includes understanding that an interpretation of gender non-conformity in non-Western cultures through a Queer Theory lens risks misunderstanding and neocolonialism, see (13).
References
1. Botelle R, Connolly D, Walker S, Bewley S. Contemporary and future transmasculine pregnancy and postnatal care in the UK. Practicing Midwife. (2021) 24:8–13.
Google Scholar
2. Bewley S, McCartney M, Meads C, Rogers A. Sex, gender, and medical data. BMJ. (2021) 372:n735. doi: 10.1136/bmj.n735
PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar
3. Sullivan A. Sex and the census: why surveys should not conflate sex and gender identity. Int J Soc Res Methodol. (2020) 23:517–24. doi: 10.1080/13645579.2020.1768346
CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar
4. Sczesny S, Formanowicz M, Moser F. Can gender-fair language reduce gender stereotyping and discrimination? Front Psychol. (2016) 7. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2016.00025
PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar
5. Laguna-Goya N, de Andres-Trelles F. Sex as a variable in medicines assessment reports for licensing in the European Union. Can gender bias be excluded? Eur J Clin Pharmacol. (2014) 70:519–25. doi: 10.1007/s00228-014-1646-5
PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar
6. Howard LM, Ehrlich AM, Gamlen F, Oram S. Gender-neutral mental health research is sex and gender biased. Lancet Psychiatry. (2017) 4:9–11. doi: 10.1016/S2215-0366(16)30209-7
PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar
7. Lee SK. Sex as an important biological variable in biomedical research. BMB Rep. (2018) 51:167–73. doi: 10.5483/BMBRep.2018.51.4.034
PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar
8. Merkatz RB. Inclusion of women in clinical trials: a historical overview of scientific ethical and legal issues. JOGNN. (1998) 27:78–84. doi: 10.1111/j.1552-6909.1998.tb02594.x
PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar
9. Menegatti M, Rubini M. Gender Bias and Sexism in Language. Oxford: Oxford University Press. (2017). doi: 10.1093/acrefore/9780190228613.013.470
CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar
10. MacDonald TK. Lactation care for transgender and non-binary patients: empowering clients and avoiding aversives. J Hum Lact. (2019) 35:223–6. doi: 10.1177/0890334419830989
PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar
11. Hoffkling A, Obedin-Maliver J, Sevelius J. From erasure to opportunity: a qualitative study of the experiences of transgender men around pregnancy and recommendations for providers. BMC Pregnancy Childbirth. (2017) 17:332. doi: 10.1186/s12884-017-1491-5
PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar
12. National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. Patient experience in adult NHS services: improving the experience of care for people using adult NHS services (2021). Available online at: https://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/cg138/chapter/1-guidance. (accessed November 16, 2021)
Google Scholar
13. Billard TJ, Nesfield S. (Re)making “transgender” identities in global media and popular culture. In: Ryan JM, editor Trans Lives in a Global(izing) World: Rights, Identities, and Politics. New York: Routledge. (2019). doi: 10.4324/9780429201783-5
CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar
14. Ahmady K. Migration and gender for Iranian LGBT. J Int Relat Peace Stud Develop. (2018) 4:1–18.
Google Scholar
15. World Health Organization UNICEF UNFPA World Bank. Trends in Maternal Mortality 2000-2017. New York: United Nations (2019).
Google Scholar
16. Geller SE, Koch AR, Garland CE, MacDonald EJ, Storey F, Lawton B, et al. global view of severe maternal morbidity: moving beyond maternal mortality. Reprod Health. (2018) 15:98. doi: 10.1186/s12978-018-0527-2
PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar
17. United Nations. Report of the Special Rapporteur on Violence Against Women, its Causes and Consequences on a Human Rights-Based Approach to Mistreatment and Violence Against Women in Reproductive Health Services with a Focus on Childbirth and Obstetric Violence. Geneva: United Nations (2019).
18. Dahlen H, Kumar-Hazard B, Schmied V. Birthing Outside the System: The Canary in the Coal Mine. New York: Routlage. (2020). doi: 10.4324/9780429489853
CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar
19. VanderKruik R, Barreix M, Chou D, Allen T, Say L, Cohen LS, et al. The global prevalence of postpartum psychosis: a systematic review. BMC Psychiatry. (2017) 17:272. doi: 10.1186/s12888-017-1427-7
PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar
20. Brockington I. Suicide and filicide in postpartum psychosis. Archives of Women’s Mental Health. (2017) 20:63–9. doi: 10.1007/s00737-016-0675-8
PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar
21. Thornton C, Schmied V, Dennis C-L, Barnett B, Dahlen HG. Maternal Deaths in NSW (2000–2006) from nonmedical causes (suicide and trauma) in the first year following birth. Biomed Res Int. (2013) 2013:623743. doi: 10.1155/2013/623743
PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar
22. UN Inter-agency Group for Child Mortality Estimation. Levels and Trends in Child Mortality: Report 2020. New York: UNICEF (2020).
23. Victora CG, Bahl R, Barros AJD, França GVA, Horton S, Krasevec J, et al. Breastfeeding in the 21st century: epidemiology, mechanisms, and lifelong effect. Lancet. (2016) 387:475–90. doi: 10.1016/S0140-6736(15)01024-7
PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar
24. Payne S, Quigley MA. Breastfeeding and infant hospitalisation: analysis of the UK 2010 infant feeding survey. Matern Child Nutr. (2016) 13:e12263. doi: 10.1111/mcn.12263
PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar
25. United Nations. Universal Declaration of Human Rights (1948). Available online at: http://www.un.org/en/documents/udhr/index.shtml. (accessed October 20, 2020)
Google Scholar
26. United Nations Office of the High Commissioner. Convention on the Rights of the Child New York: United Nations (1990). Available online at: https://www.ohchr.org/en/professionalinterest/pages/crc.aspx. (accessed November 16, 2021)
27. Heidari S, Babor TF, De Castro P, Tort S, Curno M. Sex and gender equity in research: rationale for the SAGER guidelines and recommended use. Res Integr Peer Rev. (2016) 1:2. doi: 10.1186/s41073-016-0007-6
PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar
28. Galupo MP, Pulice-Farrow L, Ramirez JL. “Like a constantly flowing river”: gender identity flexibility among nonbinary transgender individuals. In: Sinnott JD, editor. Identity Flexibility During Adulthood: Perspectives in Adult Development. Cham: Springer International Publishing (2017). p. 163–77. doi: 10.1007/978-3-319-55658-1_10
CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar
29. Money J. The concept of gender identity disorder in childhood and adolescence after 39 years. J Sex Marital Ther. (1994) 20:163–77. doi: 10.1080/00926239408403428
PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar
30. Mikdashi M, Jasbir P. Queer Theory and permanent war. GLQ. (2016) 22:215–22. doi: 10.1215/10642684-3428747
CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar
31. Butler J. Gender Trouble. London: Routlage. (1990).
Google Scholar
32. Suissa J, Sullivan A. The gender wars, academic freedom and education. J Philos Educ. (2021) 55:55–82. doi: 10.1111/1467-9752.12549
CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar
33. Alpert AB, Ruddick R, Manzano C. Rethinking sex-assigned-at-birth questions. BMJ. (2021) 373:n1261. doi: 10.1136/bmj.n1261
PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar
34. Carpenter M. The “normalization” of intersex bodies and “othering” of intersex identities in Australia. J Bioeth Inq. (2018) 15:487–95. doi: 10.1007/s11673-018-9855-8
PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar
35. Pang KC, de Graaf NM, Chew D, Hoq M, Keith DR, Carmichael P, et al. Association of media coverage of transgender and gender diverse issues with rates of referral of transgender children and adolescents to specialist gender clinics in the UK and Australia. JAMA Netw Open. (2020) 3:e2011161. doi: 10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2020.11161
PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar
36. Oxford English Dictionary. “woman, n.”. Oxford University Press (2021).
37. Margaria A. Trans men giving birth and reflections on fatherhood: what to expect? Int J Law Policy Family. (2020) 34:225–46. doi: 10.1093/lawfam/ebaa007
CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar
38. Ion R, Patrick L, Hayter M, Jackson D. Sex, gender and nursing. J Adv Nurs. (2021) 77:e10–e2. doi: 10.1111/jan.14843
PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar
39. Bamberger ET, Farrow A. Gendered and inclusive language in the preparation of manuscripts: policy statement for the Journal of Human Lactation. J Hum Lact. (2021) 37:227–9. doi: 10.1177/0890334421995103
PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar
40. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. COVID-19: Pregnant and Recently Pregnant People (2021). Available online at: https://www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019-ncov/need-extra-precautions/pregnant-people.html. (accessed September 12, 2021)
Google Scholar
41. Spatz DL. Using gender-neutral terms in lactation. MCN Am J Matern Child Nurs. (2020) 45:61. doi: 10.1097/NMC.0000000000000594
PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar
42. Farrow A. Lactation Professionals and Gender Inclusive Language: Lactation Matters the Official Blog of the International Lactation Consultant Association (2017). Available online at: https://lactationmatters.org/2017/03/27/lactation-professionals-and-gender-inclusive-language/. (accessed September 10, 2021)
43. Global Breastfeeding Collective. Call for Videos: Impacts of Formula Marketng on Breastfeeding (2021). Available online at: https://www.globalbreastfeedingcollective.org/call-videos-impacts-formula-marketing-breastfeeding. (accessed September 11, 2021)
44. Yourkavitch J, Nyaku A. Elevating the Voices of Breastfeeding People (2021). Available online at: https://r4d.org/blog/elevating-the-voices-of-breastfeeding-people/. (accessed September 12, 2021)
45. World Alliance for Breastfeeding Action. Empowering Parents Campaign (2021). Available online at: https://waba.org.my/epc/. (accessed September 16, 2021)
46. Schroder-Back P, Duncan P, Sherlaw W, Brall C, Czabanowska K. Teaching seven principles for public health ethics: towards a curriculum for a short course on ethics in public health programmes. BMC Med Ethics. (2014) 15:73. doi: 10.1186/1472-6939-15-73
PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar
47. Beauchamp TL, Childress JF. Principles of Biomedical Ethics 7th Edition. Oxford: Oxford University Press. (2013).
Google Scholar
48. Kirsten GF, Bergman NJ, Hann FM. Kangaroo mother care in the nursery. Pediatr Clin North Am. (2001) 48:443–52. doi: 10.1016/S0031-3955(08)70036-1
PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar
49. Gribble KD. A model for caregiving of adopted children after institutionalization. J Child Adolesc Psychiatr Nurs. (2007) 20:14–26. doi: 10.1111/j.1744-6171.2007.00076.x
PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar
50. Gribble K, Marinelli KA, Tomori C, Gross MS. Implications of the COVID-19 pandemic response for breastfeeding, maternal caregiving capacity and infant mental health. J Hum Lact. (2020) 36:591–603. doi: 10.1177/0890334420949514
PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar
51. Rouix C, Weedon S, London-Nadeau K, Pare A, Juster R, Roos LE, et al. Gender-inclusive language in pregnancy-related research: why and how to improve current practices. SocArXiv. (2021). Available online at: https://osf.io/preprints/socarxiv/csnqw/
Google Scholar
52. Brighton and Sussex University Hospitals NHS Trust. Gender Inclusive Language in Perinatal Services: Mission Statement and Rationale. Brighton: NHS (2020).
53. Brandt JS, Patel AJ, Marshall I, Bachmann GA. Transgender men, pregnancy, and the “new” advanced paternal age: a review of the literature. Maturitas. (2019) 128:17–21. doi: 10.1016/j.maturitas.2019.07.004
PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar
54. Pendleton J. (En)Gendering the word “midwife”: semantics, etymology and orientations. J Gend Stud. (2021) 1–13. doi: 10.1080/09589236.2021.1952406
CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar
55. La Leche League International. Cultural Sensitivity in Publications (2020). Available online at: https://www.llli.org/psr-cultural-sensitivity-in-publications/. (accessed September 12, 2020)
Google Scholar
56. Dahlen S. Do we need the word “woman” in healthcare? Postgrad Med J. (2021) 97:483. doi: 10.1136/postgradmedj-2021-140193
PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar
57. Mottl-Santiago J, Fox CS, Pecci CC, Iverson R. Multidisciplinary collaborative development of a plain-language prenatal education journal. J Midwifery Womens Health. (2013) 58:271–7. doi: 10.1111/jmwh.12059
PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar
58. Krull LM, Pearce LD, Jennings EA. How religion, social class, and race intersect in the shaping of young women’s understandings of sex, reproduction, and contraception. Religions. (2021) 12. doi: 10.3390/rel12010005
PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar
59. Hunter JL. Cervical cancer educational pamphlets: do they miss the mark for Mexican immigrant women’s needs? Cancer Control. (2005) 12:42–50. doi: 10.1177/1073274805012004S07
PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar
60. Srivastava S, Chandra M. Study on the knowledge of school girls regarding menstrual and reproductive health and their perceptions about family life education program. Int J Reprod Contracept Obstet Gynecol. (2017) 6:688–93. doi: 10.18203/2320-1770.ijrcog20170406
CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar
61. Metusela C, Ussher J, Perz J, Hawkey A, Morrow M, Narchal R, et al. “In my culture, we don’t know anything about that”: sexual and reproductive health of migrant and refugee women. Int J Behav Med. (2017) 24:836–45. doi: 10.1007/s12529-017-9662-3
PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar
62. Wilson LD. Developing low-literacy health education materials for women. MCN Am J Matern Child Nurs. (2011) 36:246–51. doi: 10.1097/NMC.0b013e3182183bbd
PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar
63. Howarth C, Hayes J, Simonis M, Temple-Smith M. “Everything’s neatly tucked away”: young women’s views on desirable vulval anatomy. Cult Health Sex. (2016) 18:1363–78. doi: 10.1080/13691058.2016.1184315
PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar
64. Harmanli O, Ilarslan I, Kirupananthan S, Knee A, Harmanli A. Women’s perceptions about female reproductive system: a survey from an academic obstetrics and gynecology practice. Arch Gynecol Obstet. (2014) 289:1219–23. doi: 10.1007/s00404-013-3116-1
PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar
65. Volck W, Ventress ZA, Herbenick D, Hillard PJ, Huppert JS. Gynecologic knowledge is low in college men and women. J Pediatr Adolesc Gynecol. (2013) 26:161–6. doi: 10.1016/j.jpag.2012.12.004
PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar
66. Bartick M, Stehel EK, Calhoun SL, Feldman-Winter L, Zimmerman D, Noble L, et al. Academy of Breastfeeding Medicine position statement and guideline: infant feeding and lactation-related language and gender. Breastfeed Med. (2021) 16:587–90. doi: 10.1089/bfm.2021.29188.abm
PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar
67. Hunter LP. Women give birth and pizzas are delivered: language and western childbirth paradigms. J Midwifery Womens Health. (2006) 51:119–24. doi: 10.1016/j.jmwh.2005.11.009
PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar
68. Donnelly WJ. The language of medical case histories. Ann Intern Med. (1997) 127:1045–8. doi: 10.7326/0003-4819-127-11-199712010-00035
PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar
69. Bastian H. Confined, managed and delivered: the language of obstetrics. Br J Obstet Gynaecol. (1992) 99:92–3. doi: 10.1111/j.1471-0528.1992.tb14460.x
PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar
70. Etowa JB. Black women’s perceptions of supportive care during childbirth. Int J Childbirth Educ. (2012) 27:27–32.
PubMed Abstract | Google Scholar
71. Likis FE, King TL, Murphy PA, Swett B. Intentional inconsistency as gender-neutral language evolves. J Midwifery Womens Health. (2018) 63:155–6. doi: 10.1111/jmwh.12746
PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar
72. Orpin J, Puthussery S, Davidson R, Burden B. Women’s experiences of disrespect and abuse in maternity care facilities in Benue State, Nigeria. BMC Pregnancy Childbirth. (2018) 18:213. doi: 10.1186/s12884-018-1847-5
PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar
73. Martínez-Galiano JM, Martinez-Vazquez S, Rodríguez-Almagro J, Hernández-Martinez A. The magnitude of the problem of obstetric violence and its associated factors: a cross-sectional study. Women Birth. (2021) 34:e526–e36. doi: 10.1016/j.wombi.2020.10.002
PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar
74. Horowitz MC. Aristotle and woman. J Hist Biol. (1976) 9:183–213. doi: 10.1007/BF00209881
PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar
75. Munzer MA. Families do not breastfeed, mothers do…and we need to say so. World Nutr. (2021) 12:30–3.
Google Scholar
76. Gribble KD, McGrath M, MacLaine A, Lhotska L. Supporting breastfeeding in emergencies: protecting women’s reproductive rights and maternal and infant health. Disasters. (2011) 35:720–38. doi: 10.1111/j.1467-7717.2011.01239.x
PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar
77. Committee on the Elimination of Discimination Against Women. General Recommentation No. 24: Article 12 of the Convention (Women and Health) (1999). Available online at: https://tbinternet.ohchr.org/Treaties/CEDAW/Shared%20Documents/1_Global/INT_CEDAW_GEC_4738_E.pdf. (accessed November 16, 2021)
78. Esterik PV. Right to food; right to feed; right to be fed. The intersection of women’s rights and the right to food. Agric Human Values. (1999) 16:225–32.
Google Scholar
79. White Ribbon Alliance. Respectful Maternity Care: The Universal Rights of Childbearing Women (2012). Available online at: https://www.who.int/woman_child_accountability/ierg/reports/2012_01S_Respectful_Maternity_Care_Charter_The_Universal_Rights_of_Childbearing_Women.pdf. (accessed November 16, 2021)
Google Scholar
80. James L, Brody D, Hamilton Z. Risk factors for domestic violence during pregnancy: a meta-analytic review. Violence Vict. (2013) 28:359–80. doi: 10.1891/0886-6708.VV-D-12-00034
PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar
81. World Health Organization. Companion of Choice During Labour and Childbirth for Improved Quality of Care. Geneva: World Health Organization (2020).
82. Association of Women’s Health OaNN. The use of human milk during parent–newborn separation: evidence-based clinical practice guideline. J Obstet Gynecol Neonatal Nurs. (2021) 50:E9–E42. doi: 10.1016/j.jogn.2021.06.003
PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar
83. Sørbø MF, Lukasse M, Brantsæter A-L, Grimstad H. Past and recent abuse is associated with early cessation of breast feeding: results from a large prospective cohort in Norway. BMJ Open. (2015) 5:e009240. doi: 10.1136/bmjopen-2015-009240
PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar
84. Welford H. “…And Pregnant People”? Nope. Nope. And All the Nopity Nope (2021). Available online at: https://with-woman.org/2021/07/11/and-pregnant-people-nope-nope-and-all-the-nopity-nope/. (accesed November 16, 2021)
Google Scholar
85. Department of Health. COVID-19 Vaccination Decision Guide for People who are Pregnant, Breastfeeding or Planning Pregnancy Version 5.1 Canberra: Australian Government (2021). Available online at: https://web.archive.org/web/20210823014732/https://www.health.gov.au/sites/default/files/documents/2021/08/covid-19-vaccination-shared-decision-making-guide-for-women-who-are-pregnant-breastfeeding-or-planning-pregnancy-covid-19-vaccination-shared-decision-making-guide-for-women-who-are-pregnant-breastfeeding-or-planning-pregna_0.pdf. (accessed October 10, 2021)
86. Shimabukuro TT, Kim SY, Myers TR, Moro PL, Oduyebo T, Panagiotakopoulos L, et al. Preliminary findings of mRNA COVID-19 vaccine safety in pregnant persons. N Engl J Med. (2021) 384:2273–82. doi: 10.1056/NEJMoa2104983
PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar
87. Munshi L, Wright JK, Zipursky J, Jordensen S, Bogler T, Miller KJ, et al. The incidence, severity, and management of COVID-19 in critically ill pregnant individuals. Sci Briefs Ontario COVID-19 Adv Table. (2021) 2:1–23. doi: 10.47326/ocsat.2021.02.43.1.0
CrossRef Full Text
88. Pineles BL, Goodman KE, Pineles L, O’Hara LM, Nadimpalli G, Magder LS, et al. In-hospital mortality in a cohort of hospitalized pregnant and nonpregnant patients with COVID-19. Ann Intern Med. (2021) 174:1186–8. doi: 10.7326/M21-0974
PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar
89. Fabi RE, Ludmir J. Pregnancy, pandemics, and public health policy: the disparate impact of COVID-19 on pregnant immigrants. Womens Health Issues. (2021) 31:195–7. doi: 10.1016/j.whi.2020.12.001
PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar
90. Maxwell C. Excerpts from the world medical literature: obstetrics. J Obstet Gynaecol Can. (2021) 43:429–31. doi: 10.1016/j.jogc.2021.01.009
PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar
91. Stebbings R, Maguire S, Armour G, Jones C, Goodman J, Maguire AK, et al. Developmental and reproductive safety of AZD1222 (ChAdOx1 nCoV-19) in mice. Reprod Toxicol. (2021) 104:134–42. doi: 10.1016/j.reprotox.2021.07.010
PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar
92. South Australia Health. Frequently Asked Questions: COVID-19 Vaccination and Pregnant, Planning a Family, and Breastfeeding Adelaide: Government of South Australia (2021). Available online at: https://emergencydepartments.sa.gov.au/wps/wcm/connect/b60afec9-f418-4b73-99ef-0e07e582664b/20210910+-+COVID-19+Vaccination+for+Pregnancy+and+Breastfeeding.pdf?MOD=AJPERES&CACHEID=ROOTWORKSPACE-b60afec9-f418-4b73-99ef-0e07e582664b-nLe3hqS. (accessed October 20, 2021)
93. Viveiros A, Rasmuson J, Vu J, Mulvagh SL, Yip CYY, Norris CM, et al. Sex differences in COVID-19: candidate pathways, genetics of ACE2, and sex hormones. Am J Physiol Heart Circ Physiol. (2021) 320:H296–304. doi: 10.1152/ajpheart.00755.2020
PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar
94. Rymaszewski A. Interviewing Breast Cancer Patients to Understand the Patients Relationship with Food Before and After Cancer Diagnosis (2019). Available online at: https://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/record/NCT04117438. (acessed November 16, 2021)
95. National Health Service. Trying to Get Pregnant (2020). Available online at: https://web.archive.org/web/20201229204603/https://www.nhs.uk/pregnancy/trying-for-a-baby/trying-to-get-pregnant/. (acessed November 16, 2021)
96. Bracken C. How the Conversation Around Endometriosis is Changing (2021). Available online at: https://www.abc.net.au/triplej/programs/the-hook-up/how-the-conversation-around-endometriosis-is-changing/13294122. (acessed November 16, 2021)
97. Eidelman AI. More thoughts on lactation-related language and gender. Breastfeed Med. (2021) 16:847. doi: 10.1089/bfm.2021.29193.aie
PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar
98. Roush K, Kurth A, Hutchinson MK, Van Devanter N. Obstetric fistula: what about gender power? Health Care Women Int. (2012) 33:787–98. doi: 10.1080/07399332.2011.645964
PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar
99. Ganeshpanchan Z, Masson I. Harmful social and cultural practices that exist within South Asian communities in the UK and their impact on women. In: Masson I, Baldwin L, Booth N, editors. Critical Reflections on Women, Family, Crime and Justice. Bristol: Bristol University Press (2021). p. 35–56. doi: 10.46692/9781447358701.004
CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar
100. Ragusa AT. Rural Australian women’s legal help seeking for intimate partner violence: women intimate partner violence victim survivors” perceptions of criminal justice support services. J Interpers Violence. (2012) 28:685–717. doi: 10.1177/0886260512455864
PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar
101. Willie TC, Powell A, Callands T, Sipsma H, Peasant C, Magriples U, et al. Investigating intimate partner violence victimization and reproductive coercion victimization among young pregnant and parenting couples: a longitudinal study. Psychol Violence. (2019) 9:278–87. doi: 10.1037/vio0000118
PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar
102. Brinda EM, Rajkumar AP, Enemark U. Association between gender inequality index and child mortality rates: a cross-national study of 138 countries. BMC Public Health. (2015) 15:97. doi: 10.1186/s12889-015-1449-3
PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar
103. Hodson N, Bewley S. How language hides violence against girls. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. (2019) 81:e162–e3. doi: 10.1097/QAI.0000000000001985
PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar
104. Ganchimeg T, Ota E, Morisaki N, Laopaiboon M, Lumbiganon P, Zhang J, et al. Pregnancy and childbirth outcomes among adolescent mothers: a World Health Organization multicountry study. BJOG. (2014) 121:40–8. doi: 10.1111/1471-0528.12630
PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar
105. Messick CA. Treatment efficacy for human papillomavirus-related anal squamous cell dysplasia in an under-represented population: human immunodeficiency-negative, non-men having sex with men, and non-transplant population. Colorectal Dis. (2020) 22:29–35. doi: 10.1111/codi.14786
PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar
106. Heidt A. Sex of Fetus Affects Immune Response to COVID-19 During Pregnancy (2021). Available online at: https://wwwthe-scientistcom/news-opinion/sex-of-fetus-affects-immune-response-to-covid-19-during-pregnancy (69329). (accessed October 26, 2021)
107. Allsbrook JF, Ahmed O, Ellmann N. Toward Equitable Treatments for Women’s Health During Coronavirus and Beyond (2020). Available online at: https://www.americanprogress.org/issues/women/reports/2020/07/15/487429/toward-equitable-treatments-womens-health-coronavirus-beyond/. (accessed November 16, 2021)
108. Fair Play for Women. Inaccurate Press Report of Sex: Fair Play for Women’s Written Submission to the Public Consultation on the Editors” Code of Practice (2020). Available online at: https://www.editorscode.org.uk/downloads/code-review-2020/Fair-Play-For-Women-Submission-to-Editors-Code-Consultation-270320.pdf. (accessed November 16, 2021)
109. Dahlen S. De-sexing the medical record? An examination of sex versus gender identity in the general medical council’s trans healthcare ethical advice. New Bioeth. (2020) 26:38–52. doi: 10.1080/20502877.2020.1720429
PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar
110. Bai DL, Fong DY, Lok KY, Wong JY, Tarrant M. Practices, predictors and consequences of expressed breast-milk feeding in healthy full-term infants. Public Health Nutr. (2017) 20:492–503. doi: 10.1017/S136898001600241X
PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar
111. Johns HM, Forster DA, Amir LH, McLachlan HL. Prevalence and outcomes of breast milk expressing in women with healthy term infants: a systematic review. BMC Pregnancy Childbirth. (2013) 13:212. doi: 10.1186/1471-2393-13-212
PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar
112. O’Sullivan EJ, Geraghty SR, Cassano PA. Rasmussen KM. Comparing alternative breast milk feeding questions to US breastfeeding surveillance questions. Breastfeed Med. (2019) 14:347–53. doi: 10.1089/bfm.2018.0256
PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar
113. Fan HSL, Fong DYT, Lok KYW, Tarrant M. Association between expressed breast milk feeding and breastfeeding duration in Hong Kong mothers. Women Birth. (2021). doi: 10.1016/j.wombi.2021.06.007
PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar
114. Pang WW, Bernard JY, Thavamani G, Chan YH, Fok D, Soh S-E, et al. Direct vs. expressed breast milk feeding: relation to duration of breastfeeding. Nutrients. (2017) 9:547. doi: 10.3390/nu9060547
PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar
115. Li R, Fein SB, Grummer-Strawn LM. Do infants fed from bottles lack self-regulation of milk intake compared with directly breastfed infants? Pediatrics. (2010) 125:e1386. doi: 10.1542/peds.2009-2549
PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar
116. Li R, Magadia J, Fein SB, Grummer-Strawn LM. Risk of bottle-feeding for rapid weight gain during the first year of life. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med. (2012) 166:431–6. doi: 10.1001/archpediatrics.2011.1665
PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar
117. Auerbach KG, Guss E. Breastfeeding: a verbal bonding. J Trop Pediat. (1986) 32:2–3. doi: 10.1093/tropej/32.1.2
PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar
118. MacNeilage PF. Sound patterns and conceptual content of the first words. In: Lefebvre C, Comrie B, Cohen H, editors New Perspectives on the Origins of Language Amsterdam: John Benjamins Publishing Company. (2013). doi: 10.1075/slcs.144.13mac
CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar
119. Jensen JM, Stvan LS. Birthmother: A Pragmatic Analysis (2007). Available online at: https://www.academia.edu/52504373/The_Connotation_of_Birthmother_Semantic_Frames_and_Compound_Nouns_student_presentation_and_paper_. (accessed October 10, 2021)
120. Osmanovna GA. The concept of “mother” and the means of its implementation in the series of novels by Joanne Rowling “Harry Potter”. Problem Mod Sci Educ. (2017) 21:41–6.
121. Cempa K. Polysemy of mother- a linguistic overview of the concept. Beyond Phil. (2010) 7:9–34.
Google Scholar
122. Senate of Australia Community Affairs References Committee. Reflections on Former Forced Adoption Policies and Practices: Report of the Senate Community Affairs References Committee. Canberra: Commonwealth of Australia (2012).
Google Scholar
123. Andrews V. The Language of Adoption (2009). Available online at: https://www.originscanada.org/adoption-practices/adoption-language/language-of-adoption/. (accessed June 12, 2021)
124. Turski D. Why “Birthmother” Means “Breeder” (2002). Available online at: https://web.archive.org/web/20181108195352/http://www.exiledmothers.com/adoption_facts/Why_Birthmother_Means_Breeder.html. (accessed November 16, 2021)
125. Kane B. An exploration of the experience of birth mothers who relinquished a child for adoption between 1960 and 1990 and who subsequently initiated contact with the relinquished child. The clinical implications for practitioners: Middlesex University and Metanoia Institute (2018).
Google Scholar
126. Coulter M. Birth mother. In: O’Reilly A, editor Encyclopedia of Motherhood California: SAGE Publications. (2010).
Google Scholar
127. Broadhurst K, Mason C. Child removal as the gateway to further adversity: birth mother accounts of the immediate and enduring collateral consequences of child removal. Qual Soc Work. (2019) 19:15–37. doi: 10.1177/1473325019893412
CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar
128. Sharyn LRA. Reinforcing gender norms: commercial and altruistic surrogacy. Acta Sociol. (1990) 33:63–74. doi: 10.1177/000169939003300105
CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar
129. Rowland R. Living Laboratories. Sydney: Pan Macmillan. (1992).
Google Scholar
130. Gribble KD, Gallagher M. Rights of children in relation to breastfeeding in child protection cases. Br J Soc Work. (2014) 44:434–50. doi: 10.1093/bjsw/bcu004
PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar
131. Ludington-Hoe SM, Johnson MW, Morgan K, Lewis T, Gutman J, Wilson PD, et al. Neurophysiologic assessment of neonatal sleep organization: preliminary results of a randomized, controlled trial of skin contact with preterm infants. Pediatrics. (2006) 117:e909–23. doi: 10.1542/peds.2004-1422
PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar
132. Bergman NJ. Historical background to maternal-neonate separation and neonatal care. Birth Defects Res. (2019) 111:1081–6. doi: 10.1002/bdr2.1528
PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar
133. NICU musings. Twitter: Is it time to replace Kangaroo Mother Care with Kangaroo Parent Care? (2021). Available online at: https://archive.vn/oY6fM. (accessed November 16, 2021)
134. Royal Hospital for Women. Ventilated Infant for Kangaroo Parent Care (2016). Available online at: https://www.seslhd.health.nsw.gov.au/sites/default/files/migration/RHW/Newborn_Care/Guidelines/Nursing/nccventkang.pdf. (accessed September 14, 2021)
135. Muniraman H, Ali M, Cawley P, Hillyer J, Heathcote A, Ponnusamy V, et al. Parental perceptions of the impact of neonatal unit visitation policies during COVID-19 pandemic. BMJ Paediatr Open. (2020) 4:e000899. doi: 10.1136/bmjpo-2020-000899
PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar
136. Scala M, Marchman VA, Brignoni-Pérez E, Morales MC, Dubner SE, Travis KE. Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on developmental care practices for infants born preterm. Early Hum Dev. (2021) 163:105483. doi: 10.1016/j.earlhumdev.2021.105483
PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar
137. Laugesen A. Changing “man made language”: Sexist language and feminist linguistic activism in Australia. In: Arrow M, Woolacott A, editors. Everyday Revolutions: Remaking Gender, Sexuality and Culture in 1970s Australia. Canberra: ANU press (2019). doi: 10.22459/ER.2019.13
CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar
138. Perez CC. Invisible Women: Exposing Data Bias in a World Designed for Men. New York: Random House. (2019).
PubMed Abstract | Google Scholar
139. World Alliance for Breastfeeding Action. Parents at Work: Leave and Breastfeeding Breaks by Country (2019). Available online at: https://waba.org.my/paw-chart-2019/. (acessed November 16, 2021)
140. Wood DL, Emslie O. Dad Days: How More Gender-Equal Parental Leave Could Improve the Lives of Australian Families. Melbourne: Grattan Institute (2021).
141. The Parenthood. Making Australia the Best Place to be a Parent (2021). Available online at: https://www.theparenthood.org.au/report. (accessed October 10, 2021)
142. United Nations. Sustainable Development Goals: Goal 5. Available online at: https://www.un.org/sustainabledevelopment/gender-equality/. (accessed November 16, 2021)
143. Illamola SM, Bucci-Rechtweg C, Costantine MM, Tsilou E, Sherwin CM, Zajicek A. Inclusion of pregnant and breastfeeding women in research – efforts and initiatives. B J Clin Pharmacol. (2018) 84:215–22. doi: 10.1111/bcp.13438
PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar
144. UN Women. Turning Promises into Action: Gender Equality in the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development. New York: UN Women (2018).
145. Stats NZ. Sex and Gender Identity Statistical Standards: Findings from Public Consultation July-August 2020. Wellington: Stats NZ Tatauranga Aotearoa. (2020).
146. GC Academic Network. Your Stories (2021). Available online at: https://www.gcacademianetwork.org/. (accessed November 16, 2021)
147. Mizielinska J. Queering Moominland: the problems of translating queer theory into a non-american context. Suomen Queer-tutkimuksen Seuran. (2006) 1:87–104.
148. Phillipson R. Language policy and linguistic imperialism. In: Ricento T, editor. An Introduction to Language Policy: Theory and Method. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing (2010). p. 346–61.
149. Abdel-Malek A. Social Dialectics: Civilisations and Social Theory. Albany: State University of New York Press (1981). doi: 10.1007/978-1-349-03819-0
CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar
150. Lineham G. La Leche League has Fallen (2021). Available online at: https://grahamlinehan.substack.com/p/la-leche-league-has-fallen. (accessed November 21, 2021)
151. Hahn M, Sheran N, Weber S, Cohan D, Obedin-Maliver J. Providing patient-centered perinatal care for transgender men and gender-diverse individuals: a collaborative multidisciplinary team approach. Obstet Gynecol. (2019) 134:959–63. doi: 10.1097/AOG.0000000000003506
PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar
152. Combs R, Wendel M, Gonzales T. Considering transgender and gender nonconforming people in health communication campaigns. Palgrave Commun. (2018) 4:98. doi: 10.1057/s41599-018-0155-z
CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar
153. Mutter RW, Frost MH, Hoskin TL, Johnson JL, Hartmann LC, Boughey JC. Breast cancer after prophylactic mastectomy (bilateral or contralateral prophylactic mastectomy), a clinical entity: presentation, management, and outcomes. Breast Cancer Res Treat. (2015) 153:183–90. doi: 10.1007/s10549-015-3515-z
PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar
154. Grimstad FW, Fowler KG, New EP, Ferrando CA, Pollard RR, Chapman G, et al. Uterine pathology in transmasculine persons on testosterone: a retrospective multicenter case series. Am J Obstet Gynecol. (2019) 220:257.e1–e7. doi: 10.1016/j.ajog.2018.12.021
PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar
155. Australian Breastfeeding Association. Breastfeeding, Chest Feeding and Human Milk Feeding: Supporting LGBTQIA+ Families. Melbourne: Australian Breastfeeding Association (2021).
156. Family Equality. Trans Family Building (2021). Available online at: https://www.familyequality.org/family-building/trans-family-building/. (accessed November 16, 2021)
157. Trans Hub. Pregnancy (2021). Available online at: https://www.transhub.org.au/pregnancy. (accessed November 16, 2021)
158. Birth Guide Chicago. COVID-19: If I Test Positive or Have Symptoms, Will I be Separated from My Baby After Birth (2021). Available online at: https://birthguidechicago.com/should-covid-positive-mother-be-separated-from-her-baby-what-leading-health-organizations-say/. (accessed November 16, 2021)
159. Authority. HFaE. HFEA MT Form (Gender-Neutral Version) (2020). Available online at: https://www.hfea.gov.uk/media/3062/2020-01-31-mt-form-gender-neutral-version-3.pdf. (accessed November 18, 2021)
160. National Institute for Health and Care Excellence Royal Royal College of Obstetricians and Gynaecologists. Postnatal Care: NICE Guideline. London: NICE (2021).
161. Murray Blackburn Mackenzie. Recoding sex on medical records: a case study of NHS Scotland (2020). Available online at: https://murrayblackburnmackenzie.org/2020/01/12/recording-sex-on-medical-records-a-case-study-of-nhs-scotland/. (accessed November 16, 2021)
162. Stroumsa D, Roberts Elizabeth FS, Kinnear H, Harris LH. The power and limits of classification: 32-year-old man with abdominal pain. N Engl J Med. (2019) 380:1885–8. doi: 10.1056/NEJMp1811491
PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar
163. Anonymous. Trans man says confusion caused cervical screening delay (2021). Available online at: https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-england-humber-58515769. (accessed November 16, 2021)
164. Kimberly A, Terrell A, Gender Dysphoria Alliance. Re: Rethinking sex-assigned-at-birth questions (2021). Available online at: https://www.bmj.com/content/373/bmj.n1261/rr-20. (accessed November 16, 2021)
165. Patel K, Lyon ME, Luu HS. Providing inclusive care for transgender patients: capturing sex and gender in the electronic medical record. J Appl Lab Med. (2020) 6:210–8. doi: 10.1093/jalm/jfaa214
PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar
166. Juster R-P, Lupien S. A sex- and gender-based analysis of allostatic load and physical complaints. Gend Med. (2012) 9:511–23. doi: 10.1016/j.genm.2012.10.008
PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar
167. Yang Y, Kozloski M. Sex differences in age trajectories of physiological dysregulation: inflammation, metabolic syndrome, and allostatic load. J Gerontol A Biol Sci Med Sci. (2011) 66:493–500. doi: 10.1093/gerona/glr003
PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar
168. McEwen BS, Gianaros PJ. Stress- and allostasis-induced brain plasticity. Annu Rev Med. (2011) 62:431–45. doi: 10.1146/annurev-med-052209-100430
PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar
169. Ellis BJ, Del Giudice M. Developmental adaptation to stress: an evolutionary perspective. Annu Rev Dev Psychol. (2019) 70:111–39. doi: 10.1146/annurev-psych-122216-011732
PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar
170. Green E. The culture war over “pregnant people”. In: The Atlantic. (2021) (accessed September 17, 2021).